Yeats’s noh and world drama foreign form in tandem with local materials 2018 Youngmin Kim.pdf

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Yeats’snohand worlddrama:foreignformin tandem
with localmaterials
Youngmin Kim1
©AkadémiaiKiadó,Budapest,Hungary2018
Abstract
InanessayontheJapanesenohdrama,“Fenollosaonthenoh,”ErnestFenollosa
(1853–1908)providesauniquebutreversecaseofFrancoMoretti’sconceptof
“worldliterature.”Morettiarguesthat“thecompromisebetweentheforeignandthe
localissoubiquitous”that“theencounterofWesternformsandlocalrealitydid
indeedproduceeverywhereastructuralcompromise.”IagreewithMorettithatthe
problemisalwaysastructuralcompromisebetweenforeignformandlocalmateri‑
,Icontendthatwhatisatstakeinworld
literatureisrathertheproblemofbalancingbetweenclosereadingsoflocal/global


natureofWilliamButlerYeats’stransculturalinterweavingbetweentheforeign
‑
text,Ihaveattemptedtoprovideacaseofbalancingbetweentheforeignformof
theJapanesenohandlocalmaterialsfoundinIrishplays,therebysuggestinganew
’stransla‑
tionsofthenohplays,andhavingenvisionedJapanesenohplaysasthevisionary
modelforhisfuturetheatre,Yeatshadanewvisionofworlddramabyinvestigat‑
ingthepotentialtheoriesof“mask”and“ghost,”therebyanticipatingthevisionof
transcultural/transnationalworldliteratureanddrama.
KeywordsJapanesenohdrama ·WilliamButlerYeats ·Mask ·Ghost ·EastWest
comparativeliterature ·Worldliteratureanddrama
*YoungminKim
******@
1Departmentof English,DonggukUniversity,30,1‑gil,Pildong‑ro,Jung‑gu,Seoul 04620,
Republic of Korea
Vol.:(0123456789)13:.
Y. Kim
Introduction
FrancoMoretti,inhisDistantreading(2013),provideshisunderstandingofworld
literatureintermsofa“problem”:“Worldliteratureisnotanobject,itisaproblem,
aproblemthatasksforanewcriticalmethod:andnoonehaseverfoundamethod
’showtheoriescomeintobeing;theyneedaleap,a
wager—ahypothesis,togetstarted.”1Morettifurtherteststheproblematicsofworld
literatureonalargescale,inparticular,inthegenreofthemodernnovel,fromthe
perspectiveofEuro‑centric“compromisebetweenawesternformalinfluenceand
localmaterials.”2
[I]nculturesthatbelongtotheperipheryoftheliterarysystems(whichmeans:
almostallcultures,insideandoutsideEurope),themodernnovel,firstarises
notasanautonomousdevelopmentbutasacompromisebetweenawestern
formalinfluence(usuallyFrenchorEnglish)
Moretti’slargescaleunderstandingofthenovelinworldliteraturespanning“four
continents,200 years,[and]overtwentyindependentcriticalstudies”letsusseethat
“whenaculturestartsmovingtowardsthemodernnovel,it’salwaysasacompro‑
misebetweenforeignformandlocalmaterials.”4WhatMorettifindsisthat“the
compromisebetweentheforeignandthelocalissoubiquitous,”5andalsothat“the
encounterofWesternformsandlocalrealitydidindeedproduceeverywhereastruc‑
turalcompromise.”6Moretti’sfinalanalysisisthat“worldliteraturewasindeeda
system—,notuniform,”andthatthe
studyofworldliteratureis“astudyofthestruggleforsymbolichegemonyacross
theworld.”7
InanessayontheJapanesenohdrama,8ErnestFenollosa(1853–1908)inadif‑
ferentveinprovidesauniquebutreversecaseofMorettian“worldliterature,”in
whichacompromisebetweeneasternforeignforms(Orientalforms)andwestern
localmaterials(Europeanmaterials)occursin“onecontinuousdramaoftheartof
pureliving”9:
1Moretti(2013,).
2Ibid.
3Ibid.,.
4Ibid.,.
5Ibid.,.
6Ibid.,.
7Ibid.,.
,thereweredramassuchaskyogen
(comedies),noh,kabuki,‑
"dance‑drama"that
wasverypopularwiththerichandpowerfuleliteclassofmedievalJapan,includingthecourtinthe14th
,ademon,oranoldman,and
theyperformwithmusicianssittingbehindtheactorandachorus(jiutai)ofeightpeopleontheright
,
(1990).
9PoundandFenollosa(1959,).
13:.
Yeats’snohand worlddrama:foreignformin tandemwith local…
Ihavespokenoftheuniversalvalueofthisspecialart‑life,andexplainedhow
theinflowingofsuchanOrientalstreamhashelpedtorevitalizeWesternArt,

Fenollosaonthesamepagefurtherpointsouttheinterweavinginfluencebetween
whatFrancoMoretticallsforeignformandlocalmaterialsintermsof“astronger
andstrongermodificationofourestablishedstandardsbythepungentsubtletyof
Orientalthought,andthepowerofthecondensedOrientalforms.”11Fenollo‑
sa’sexamplesoflocalmaterialsareEuropeanandhisexampleofforeignformis
Oriental:
[T]hefreedomoftheElizabethanmind,anditspowertorangeoverallplanes
ofhumanexperience,asinShakespeare,was,inpart,anaftermathofOriental
contacts—inCrusades,inanintimacywiththeMongolssuchasMarcoPolo’s,
inthediscoveryofadoublesea‑passagetoPersiaandIndia,andinthefirst

Fenollosa’scataloguefurtherincludestheRomanticmovementinthelatereight‑
eenthcenturyandtheearlynineteenth,whichwasinfluencedbythescholarlystudy
andtranslationofOrientalliterature;BishopPercy’srevivalofthemedievalballad
inrelationtotheChinesepoetry;Voltaire’sChinesetragedymodifiedfromaJesuit
translation;Moore,Byron,Shelley,andColeridgebeinginfluencedbythespiritof
Persiantranslations;andWordsworth’poetryvergingontheHindudoctrineofrein‑
,inthiscontext,thatthestudyofworldliterature
isnotsimplythatof“thatstruggleforsymbolicalhegemonyacrosstheworld,”as
,worldliteratureisan“ellipticalrefractionofnationallit‑
eratures”asDavidDamroschperceivesinhisWhatisworldliterature?(2003).14
Iarguethatworldliteratureis,infact,refracteddoublyinamutualtransnational/
transculturaltransactionoftheperspectives,formsandmaterials,translations,and
inencounterswithbothlocalandforeignliterarytexts.
Inanessay,“Yeats’snoh:Thedancerandthedance,”anintroductiontoYeats
andthenoh:Acomparativestudy(1990),AugustineMartin(1935–1995)demon‑
stratesanewvisionforthemoderndrama,whiletouchingonthecaseofbalancing
betweentheforeignformoftheJapanesenohandthelocalmaterialsofIrishplays:
[Yeats]hadaradicalvisionoftheatricalpossibilityandthenohwashisinspi‑
—the
senseofreligionandritual,thesacrednessofplace,theomnipresenceofthe
supernatural,customandceremony,theeloquenceofgesture,mime,dance,
thedramaticpowerofsilenceandstillness;aboveall,perhaps,animpersonal‑
itywhichwouldreplacethemodernnaturalisticpreoccupationwithcharacter
10Ibid.
11Ibid.
12Ibid.
13Ibid.,.
14Damrosch(2003,).
13:.
Y. Kim

‘inscornofthisaudience,’andoftheseartisticproclivities,afterthedeathof

Inshort,Martinprovidesuswithasuccinctcatalogueof“alltheelements[Yeats]
neededforhisnewgenre”intermsofthenohplays.
Inthiscontext,thisarticlewillinvestigatehowYeatsincollaborationwithEzra
PoundatStoneCottagetookaninterestinFenollosa’sversionsofJapanesenoh
plays,discoveringinthemnewandexcitingpossibilitiesforhisownscenicwriting,
aswellashowJapanesenohplaysrevealanewvisionforthemoderndrama,bypro‑
vidingstructuralmodelsforamorestylized,archetypal,andglobaldrama.
Foreignform:Japanesenohdramaand Yeats‒Poundcollaboration
at StoneCottage
WilliamButlerYeats(1865–1939)spentthewintersof1913–1914,1914–1915,and
1915–1916withEzraPound(1885–1972)atasmallcottage,namedStoneCottage,
inAshdownForest,‑called“StoneCottagecollaboration”marks
theturningpointforthenewdevelopmentinYeats’.
:Themanandthemilieu(1997),KeithAlldrittgivesadramaticstoryof
howYeatsthroughPoundencountersthenohplays,andinitiatesthemilieuofworld
dramaofmodernism:
AcoupleofweeksbeforegoingtoSussex[1913],Pound,everonthemove
throughliteraryLondon,hadbeenintroducedbytheIndianpoetSarojini
NaidutoanAmericanwidow,,whohad
diedsomefiveyearsbefore,hadtaughtphilosophyattheImperialUniversity

literatureofChinaandJapanandathisdeathheleftagooddealofmanu‑

papersshecompiledandeditedatwo‑volumework,EpochsofChineseand
’spoetry,sheaskedNaidutoarrangeforher


herhusband’stranslationsofplaysandpoemsandsheentrustedhimwiththe
manuscripts,
interestinFenollosa’sversionsofJapanesenohplays,discoveringinthemnew

modelsforamorestylized,hieraticandarchetypaldramathanhehadwritten
15SekineandMurray(1990,).
16FortheextensivediscussionoftheStoneCottagecollaborationofYeatsandPound,
(1989).
13:.
Yeats’snohand worlddrama:foreignformin tandemwith local…

makefor
Infact,thisliteraryandspiritualcollaborationbetweenYeatsandPound,asAlldritt
narrates,initiatestheglobalmodernistmovementasJamesLongenbachinhisStone
Cottage:Pound,Yeats,andmodernism(1989)
theircollaborativework,YeatsandPoundcouldenhancetheprojectofworldlit‑
eraturebyattemptingto“bridgethedividebetweenamateurismandspecializa‑
tion,mitigatingboththeglobalgeneralist’sbesettinghubrisandthenationalspe‑
cialist’sdeeplyingrainedcaution.”18AnthonyBradleyinhisbook,WilliamButler
Yeats(1979),providesasuccinctrationaleforYeats’sadoptionofthenohplaysas
,Yeatshasrejectedtheconventional
theaterofrealism,andencounteredthedramaticformthatembodiesallhehad

imitatedinhisownplayswas“anonmimeticdramaticform,symbolicandritualistic
inmodeandhighlystylizedinconvention”aswellas“theimpressivecontinuityof
culturaltradition.”19
Ontheonehand,fromthenohdramawhichhelearnedaboutfromPoundinthe
winterof1913–1914,Yeatscametobeprovidedwiththeexternalformandappa‑
ratusforFourplaysfordancers:achorus,maskedplayers,aclimacticdance,anda
,entitled“Certainnobleplaysof
Japan,”Yeatsprovidesthecharacteristicscenesonthestageofthenohplaysusinga
painterlydescription:
Thewhiteandpurplecurtainwasnodoubttohanguponawallbehindthe
playersorovertheirentrance‑door,forthenohstageisaplatformsurrounded
“naturalistic”‑

aslowmovementandalongorashortstillness,andthenanothermovement.
Theysingasmuchastheyspeak,andthereisachoruswhichdescribesthe
sceneandinterpretstheirthoughtandneverbecomesasintheGreektheatre
,insteadofthedisorderedpassionofnature,
thereisadance,aseriesofpositionsandmovements,orthepainofaghostin

AsYeatshimselfremarked,hediscoveredinthenohplays,a“platform”formasked
dance,andheadaptedthenohinawaytobefreedfromallthenaturalisticstage
17Alldritt(1997,).
18Damrosch(2003,).(2017,).Damrosch’sdefinitionofworldliteratureinterms
ofthedouble“ellipticalrefractionofnationalliteratures”isrelevantforthediscussionoftheYeats‑